Modern society Essay Example for Free

Modern society Essay The modern family is obviously in many ways different from the traditional family types that existed in the past. A number of trends are at work nowadays shaping the modern, or, as some scholars put it, post-modern family (United Nations University). These factors affect the basic foundations of the family and reconfigure the roles of all members of this institution, receiving different evaluations of psychologists, economists, and sociologists. Professor Yount from Emory University notes that modern American families have undergone a dramatic sociological change in the past decades. Thus, the size of household declined among Caucasians and African Americans and rose among Hispanics, the â€Å"percentage of households headed by married couples declined from 78 percent to 53 percent in the period from 1950 to 1998† (Yount, 2005). In addition, the proportion of dual-earning couples has increased significantly, creating a new economic reality (Yount, 2005). Today, the woman is increasingly contributing as much as or even more than the man to the family budget, a fact that has implications for her economic role in the family. A woman is more likely to remain financially independent after divorce or even lose money in divorce proceedings to her husband. This has positive implications for children that are less likely to remain without support after the parents’ separation and benefits the society, creating a new workforce pool. Against this background a noticeable trend is certainly an alarming divorce rate. In a certain sense, this trend works against growing importance of women as bread winners, contributing to insecurity of children’s well-being and putting heavy financial pressure on spouses that take custody of children. On the other hand, divorce rates are connected to â€Å"the new level of women’s involvement in the workplace, as well as modernization of women’s roles in general† (Swanson 2004:1). In a sense, divorce is the result of growing egalitarianism in family relations, a trend clear from the psychological perspective. Families become more and more egalitarian in the sense that younger and older members, women and men are achieving a more equal status in many ways. However, Swanson (2004) also points out that perfect egalitarianism remains elusive. Most men and women aspiring to build egalitarian families in the times of their courtship face a reality in which they cannot attain this desired ideal and instead lapse into traditional rigid gender roles. This becomes even more of a problem with childbirth. Although men tend to have a greater role in parenting than before, women are still responsible for most of it, and it tends to re-shape the roles in the family toward greater participation of the woman in household duties and increases her workload relative to that of the man. Thus, a study conducted in Switzerland â€Å"reveals some moderate tendencies towards less sex typing of task allocation in such items as administrative contacts, gifts, holidays, cleaning, but there seems to be a hard core of tasks showing very little change (cooking meals, washing)† (Levy, Widmer, Kellerhals 2002). There are many other changes obvious in the psychological realm. Values and priorities in family life are undergoing a constant change. United Nations University in its article on the post-modern family notes that today’s families see â€Å"optional participation in most aspects of communal life, high levels of privacy and choice† as opposed to â€Å"compulsory participation in all aspects of communal life, lack of privacy and personal choice†. Because of lower level of required participation in communal activities, people experience a shift in the nature of identity, often associating themselves with a greater number of fluid social groups. Values become less constant, and social roles are changing. One interesting trend pointed out by Professor Gillis of Rutgers University is the growing virtual character of people’s connections with home. Many spend little time at the place associated with their home, something underscored by the fact that â€Å"homemade† and â€Å"homecooked† is likely to be made anywhere but at home† (Gillis 2000:7). On the other hand, modern communication possibilities in the form of Internet, cheaper long-distance calling and other ways allow for greater connection with relatively remote places. This creates prerequisites for a deep psychological change in the mentality of people who feel at the same time estranged and closer to their relatives who they see less frequently, but can communicate with from a distance. A word should also be said about the emergence of non-traditional households, starting from cohabitation prior to marriage that can now last decades to homosexual households and those including several couples. Welcomed or abhorred, these families also have a presence in the modern society. As to homosexual couples, we see these days a clear trend toward legitimizing these relationships. This can have far-reaching consequences for modern families. There is a greater scope of opportunities for adoption of children, greater security for members of such families that previously lacked social security, and other economic and social advantages. However, there is also an opinion that the prevalence of these arrangements destroys the foundations of the regular family. Thus, families nowadays undergo a profound change that occurs on sociological, psychological, and economic plane. Most often, these planes prove to be deeply interconnected in many ways. Thus, divorce has roots in growing egalitarianism and shift of values that affect the psychology of young people who get married. On the other hand, it has profound economic ramifications, creating instability and jeopardizing the financial well-being of women and children in most cases. Overall, the modern family demonstrates many trends, increasingly exhibiting diversity and fluidity in definition of patterns and values. Bibliography Gillis, John R. â€Å"Our Virtual Families: Toward a Cultural Understanding of Modern Family Life†. Emory Universitys Center on Myth and Ritual in American Life Newletter Working Paper No. 2 (2000). 19 November 2006 http://www. marial. emory. edu/pdfs/Gillispaper. PDF. Levy, Rene, Widmer, Eric, and Jean Kellerhals. â€Å"Modern family or modernized family traditionalism? : Master status and the gender order in Switzerland†. Electronic Journal of Sociology (2002): Universite de Lausanne. 19 November 2006 http://www. sociology. org/content/vol006. 004/lwk. html.

Comparing two poems Essay Example for Free

Comparing two poems Essay In this essay I will be comparing two poems. These poems are on the topic of war which is very relevant especially as there is a war going on in Iraq as I am writing this. The first poem I am going to write about called: Dulce et Decorum est is written by Wilfred Owen. He had first hand experience of war as he was a soldier; so he will give us a very honest opinion of war and what it was really like to fight in one. Unfortunately for him he was killed in action a week before the war ended. The poem has a very strong anti-war feeling about it; it is his personal view that dying for your country is not a very good thing and in the poem he conveys this to us by giving us very clear mental pictures of the horrible effects of war. Wilfred Owenss attitude to war is that he is frustrated, angry and resentful of it. The poem type Wilfred uses in this poem is the Sonnet; this is odd because Sonnet poems are usually about love but in this case he is writing about hurt; rhythm of the octaves in this poem is slow and speeds up in the sestet. These ties in with the mood of the poem e.g.: Gas! Gas! Gas! This line has been broken up with exclamation marks to show that there is an emergency. Then it slows down quite considerably again in the final stanza to make us think of the suffering the soldiers go through. It is wonderful the way that he structures this poem from the soldiers feelings, to his own and then he asks the reader for their views. There is one very noticeable thing about the structure and that is that there are two lines of the poem on their own; also these line are not in the past tense like the rest of the poem and this is because he is trying to emphasize the mental scars of war which remain with him in the present. He gives us a very detailed mental picture and he gives us this in all three verses. In verse 1 he talks about the physical breakdown of the soldiers. He builds up this mental image of suffering e.g.: knocked kneed, and he continues this mental picture into versus 2 as he talks about his fellow solider suffering and dying in the gas as he cant get his helmet on. He uses verbs in this verse in a clever way e.g.: Fumbling and floundering. E.g.: Fumbling, Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time. And floundering like a man in fire or lime. In verse 3 he uses Onomatopoeic e.g.: gargling. He uses this word to explain how his fellow solider died e.g. Gargling from the forth-corrupted lungs. The pain that this soldier suffered is conveyed to us in a very gruesome way e.g.: As under a green sea, I saw him drowning. What he means by that is he has breathed in so much gas its suffocating him so it is very like drowning. Another example He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning. In the first verse he uses metaphors in a very powerful way e.g. Blood shod, drunk with fatigue to show the exhaustion and suffering of the soldiers. Also the Onomatopoeic words in the first verse sludge and trudge, show us how the soldiers slowly marched ; it tell us also that they had no determination and enthusiasm lift to fight for their country. Wilfred Owen is basically saying in this poem that hes been there and its not that good at all to fight for your country. This is the complete opposite of what Lord Tennyson talks about in The Charge of the Light Brigade. Lord Tennysons poem is different from Wilfred Owen in a number of ways. Firstly Lord Tennyson has never fought in a war; Tennyson poem is also saying that it is good to die for your country and Tennysons poem is about the soldiers being heroes and noble men. The poets attitude to war is that it is an honorable and noble thing to die for your country. The tone of this poem is fast and very sharp e.g.: Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns! Another example is Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them stays at this speed for most of the poem. Tennyson structures his poem in to 6 verses of even length. He starts off describing the advance in verse 1 and 2 e.g.: Into the valley of death Forward, the Light Brigade! then into verse 4 he talks about the heat of the battle e.g.: Flashed all their sabers bare, Flashed as they turned in air, Sabring the gunners there. In verses 5 and 6 he talks about the retreat e.g.: Back from the mouth of Hell, All that was left of them and he then goes on to say how courageous, noble and heroic the soldiers were e.g.: honour the charge they made! Honour the light brigade, Noble six hundred. Verse 6 is shorter than the rest as it is a tribute to the soldiers that fought in the war. The rhythm of the poem is regular; it conveys how inevitable the charge was. The rhyme sounds very grand, patriotic and has a musical tone about it. The poem type is a ballad. A ballad is usually a short narrative poem with stanzas of two or four lines and usually a refrain. They contain repetition e.g.: Rode the six hundred (which is on the end of every verse) another example: Half league, half league, half league onward. They are written in straight-forward verse, seldom with detail, but always with graphic simplicity and force. Many old-time ballads were written and performed by minstrels attached to noblemens courts. Language used in the poem is very powerful to glorify the charge rather than show pity. He uses metaphors in his poem e.g.: Into the valley of death; there is also personification used in his poem e.g.: Into the jaws of death and Into the mouth of hell He uses these metaphors and personification in his poem to emphasize the suicidal march of the Light Brigade. The hell and death in these phrases reinforces the views of this being the end for the soldiers. I really liked the way that Tennyson brings the reader into his poem by asking a rhetorical question: Was there a man dismayed? and When can their glory fade? He does use a quite a lot of onomatopoeia e.g.: Volleyed and thundered and Shot and shell. He has also chosen his verbs in his poem really well. They are Very prominent; convey idea of speed, the light and movement all in the one verb is flashed. The repetition is very powerful and significant in the poem from the very first line: Half a league, Half a League, Half a league onward. My personal view on war is that it is a terrible thing and should only be used for a last resort. I would only agree with a war at present if there was evidence to prove that Iraq have weapons of mass destruction and then I would consider it a just war and that we must get Saddam quickly and carefully to keep down the risk of innocent deaths. I personally prefer Dulce et Decorum est. by Wilfred Owen as it is more detailed and gives you very vivid pictures of the soldiers deaths and as Wilfred Owen was believable actually there its more in a sense as he was has seen it up close. This poem taught me that war is a bad thing and its not worth it; it helped me to appreciate how much pain some of the soldiers had to suffer in the war.

The Notions Of Foreignisation And Domestication English Language Essay

The Notions Of Foreignisation And Domestication English Language Essay The domesticating sense-for-sense strategy was the dominant approach in translation until only recently. The 19th century saw a tendency towards the foreign, expressed mainly through the theories put forward by Friedrich Schleiermacher, who stated that the audience was to have the feeling that they are in the presence of the foreign (Fawcett 1997: 116). His views were later 5 revised by Venuti, who regarded foreignisation as a means of combating the dominant, assimilative position of the English-language culture. 1.1 Foreignisation and domestication The terms foreignisation and domestication have been coined by Venuti as means of providing general classification for translation procedures (see 1.3). He defines them in detail in his influential work, titled The Translators Invisibility: A History of Translation (1995). 1.1.1 Definitions According to Ventui (1995: 19-20), a foreignising strategy consists in acquiring a translation method which does not conform to norms and values prevalent within the target language system. Employing such an approach, which preserves linguistic and cultural differences between the two systems, requires a translation style designed to make the intervention of the translator visible (Munday 2001: 147), resulting in a non-fluent, alienating TT (Baker 1998: 243). This effect is usually achieved through close reconstruction of the ST structure and syntax in the TT and importation of foreign cultural forms. Domesticating translation strategy, as a contrast, entails an appropriation, or reduction (Venuti 1995: 20), of the foreign text into target-language conventions and makes use of stylistic devices, which provide for a transparent and fluent reading, minimizing the foreigness of the TT (Munday 2001: 146). Domestication is also said to involve selecting texts which adhere to domestic literary canons, resulting in a conservative and openly assimilationist approach to the foreign text (Baker 1998: 242), which is to serve domestic publishing trends and political alignments. 1.1.2 Brief history Domestication strategies were in common use since ancient Rome, chiefly as means of conquering the SL (Baker 1998: 241). Latin translators not only deleted culturally specific markers, but also added allusions to Roman culture and deleted resistant passages (KwieciÅ„ski 2001: 17), that is to say, lexical elements which required a great deal of study since they could easily by misinterpreted. The largest step for the formulation of domesticating translation theory is considered to be made by St. Jerome, the author of Vulgate Latin translation of the Bible commissioned in 384 CE. Following remarks offered earlier by Cicero, he identified the notion of word-for-word translation, a foreignising strategy, and opposed it with a domesticating alternative, a sense-for-sense strategy, as the correct method to render SL text, thus introducing an important distinction, which shed new light on the study of foreignisation and domestication. The use of exoticisms in translation was advocated by Augustine, due to concerns about the reaction of the Christian community to the unfamiliar features of Jeromes Latin text of the Bible. He does, however, oppose the use of Greek calques should these be incompatible with Latin or resistant. Bible translation became a key issue, around which different approaches to translation surfaced (Bassnett 1991: 47). The domesticating strategy was employed in the Wycliffite Bible translation, where the sense-for-sense strategy aimed at rending the text in a common language so that the Holy Scripture be accessible to a layman, and not loosing scholarly accuracy at the same time. Renaissance largely contributed to the development of the domesticating theory. The use of contemporary idiom and style was much advocated; in his Circular Letter of Translation (1530), Martin Luter emphasised the necessity to rely on the common language (KwieciÅ„ski 2001: 24). He recognised that exoticisms in certain cases cannot and should not be avoided, provided that the translator uses them after careful historical and philological study. The 17th century translation style pushed domestication beyond earlier limits. Abraham Cowleys comments in his Preface to his Pindarique Odes (1656), in which he states that he has taken, left out and added what I please (Bassnett 1991: 56) while translating, are highly symptomatic of the general atmosphere affected by the Counter-Reformation movement. The first systematic approach to the issue of translation strategies was offered in 1791 by A.F. Tyler in his Essay on the Principles of Translation. In it he points to three laws which should govern translation in general: a) the rendering is to be carried out sense-for-sense; b) style and register are to remain invariant; c) the translation should have all the ease of the original composition (KwieciÅ„ski 2001: 35). The 19th century saw a turn towards the foreign in thinking on translation. This new tendency, visible in the works of Shelly and Goethe, claimed translation to be a mechanical function, which consists merely of making known a given text or author to the reader (Bassnett 1991: 66). This approach is conveyed in the theories offered by Friedrick Schleiermacher in his lecture ÃÅ"ber die verschiedenen Methoden des ÃÅ"bersetzens (1813). The document deals with two opposite concepts, the foreginising reader-to-author strategy and the domesticating author-to-reader strategy à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ with no in-between area (KwieciÅ„ski 2001: 39). The former option was favoured, through the use of which consciously archaic translations were produced, aimed at a minority of learned readers. Indeed, the audience was to have the feeling that they are in the presence of the foreign (Fawcett 1997: 116). 1.1.3 Domestication in theories by Eugene Nida A significant shift in translation theory was brought forth by the influential theories of Eugene Nida, who addressed the issue of translation correspondence through the viewpoint of the receptor of the text. It is suggested that audience design has profound impact on the shape of the target text, and therefore different translations will be correct for different readerships (Fawcett 1997: 56). Thus, meaning is to have precedence before style, the TT aiming at being an equivalent of ST rather than its identical representation. This return to Augustinian principles of sense-for-sense translations is exemplified by Nidas formulation of notions of formal and dynamic equivalence. The latter, domesticating strategy was seen as privileged since it aimed at complete naturalness of expression and finding the closest natural equivalent to the SL message (Nida 1964: 159). Dynamic equivalence acknowledged situations where foreign associations can hardly be avoided, in which case the use of importation combined with intratextual covert glosses was suggested as the proper way of approaching the foreign. Translations in the formal equivalence manner on the other hand, were regarded as cases where semantic accuracy is given priority over naturalness (KwieciÅ„ski 2001: 50). Such renderings were seen as acceptable and for certain types of audiences (the aforementioned accuracy is of great importance in legal texts, for instance). 10 Though Nidas model has been challenged by some theorists, particularly for its departure from the notion of translation as exchange of information towards appropriation of a foreign text for domestic purposes (KwieciÅ„ski 2001: 50), the idea of function of a given text with respect to its readership was indeed influential for contemporary theories.

The Decline of Chivalry Explored in Araby and A&P Essay -- Comparison

Romantic gestures have been seen as a useful motive to win hearts of women for centuries. However, as society constantly changes, the effectiveness of these chivalrous acts has diminished. In James Joyce’s â€Å"Araby† and John Updike’s â€Å"A&P†, this theory is explored, both telling the story of a boy whose efforts to impress the girl of their desires fail. As said by Well’s in his critical analysis of these stories, â€Å"Both the protagonists have come to realize that romantic gestures—in fact, that the whole chivalric view [sic] --- are, in modern times, counterproductive†. These stories, despite the differences between the two characters, clearly show that the character’s world is changing, with chivalry becoming more obsolete. â€Å"Araby† tells the story of a young boy who romanticizes over his friend’s older sister. He spends a lot of time admiring the girl from a distance. When the girl finally talks to him, she reveals she cannot go to the bazaar taking place that weekend, he sees it as a chance to impress her. He tells her that he is going and will buy her something. The boy becomes overwhelmed by the opportunity to perform this chivalrous act for her, surely allowing him to win the affections of the girl. The night of the bazaar, he is forced to wait for his drunken uncle to return home to give him money to go. Unfortunately, this causes the boy to arrive at the bazaar as it is closing. Of the stalls that remained open, he visited one where the owner, and English woman, â€Å"seemed to have spoken to me out of a sense of duty† (Joyce 89) and he knows he will not be able to buy anything for her. He decides to just go home, realizing he is â€Å"a creature driven and derided with vanity† (Joyce 90). He is angry with himself and embarrassed as he... ... prove how romantic gestures become obsolete as time progresses. As shown above, Sammy and the boy went to great lengths to impress the girls. However, their quest failed simply because it did not matter to the girls. This goes to show that as society develops through time, these chivalrous gestures become more and more useless. Work Cited DiYanni, Robert. Literature: Approaches to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. Boston: McGraw Hill. 2008. Print. Joyce, James. â€Å"Araby.† The Norton Introduction to Literature, Shorter Eighth Edition. Eds. Jerome Beaty, Alison Booth, J. Paul Hunter, and Kelly J. Mays. New York: W.W.Norton. Updike, John. "A&P." The Bedford Introduction To Literature. Ed. Editor's Name(s). Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin, 2005. Wells, Walter. "John Updike's 'A&P': a return visit to 'Araby.'" Studies in Short Fiction 30, 2 (Spring 1993)

From Oppressed Slaves to Champion Soldiers :: American America History

From Oppressed Slaves to Champion Soldiers This is just a small example of the doubt and hatred that was bestowed on the African American soldiers. However, during the war, they proved themselves to be brave and courageous men on and off the battlefield on many occasions. Despite deep prejudices and harsh criticisms from the white society, these men were true champions of patriotism. The cause of the Civil War was tension between the North and the South. The sectional division between the areas began in colonial times, largely resulting from geographical differences. The South was ideal for growing tobacco due to the warm climate and the fertile soil. Plantations brought in black slaves from Africa to provide most of the labor required for growing the crop. In time, other plantation crops such as cotton, sugar cane, indigo, and sugar beets were to thrive in the South. "By the onset of the Civil War, 2.4 million slaves were engaged in cotton production" (Long 16). A rural way of life that supported an agrian economy based on s lave labor was quickly established in the South. The North, however, was a cooler, rockier climate that would not support the development of plantations. As a result, the North's economy came to depend more on trade and industry than on agriculture. This economy supported the growth of cities, although many lived in rural areas during the colonial period. The sectional division between North and South had widened enormously by the mid - 1800's. The United States had expanded all the way to the Pacific Ocean and was rapidly becoming a major industrial and commercial nation. However, industry and commerce were centered in the North. The Northerners welcomed modernization and the constant changes it brought to their way of life. Their ideals included hard work, education, economic independence, and the belief that the community had the right and responsibility to decide whether an action was moral or immoral. While Northerners looked forward to a different and better future, Southerner s held the present and past dear. They enjoyed a prosperous agricultural economy based on slave labor and wished to keep their old way of life. By the 1800's, northerners viewed slavery as wrong and began a movement to end it. Even though an antislavery minority existed in the South, most Southerners found slavery to be highly profitable and in time came to consider it a positive good. From Oppressed Slaves to Champion Soldiers :: American America History From Oppressed Slaves to Champion Soldiers This is just a small example of the doubt and hatred that was bestowed on the African American soldiers. However, during the war, they proved themselves to be brave and courageous men on and off the battlefield on many occasions. Despite deep prejudices and harsh criticisms from the white society, these men were true champions of patriotism. The cause of the Civil War was tension between the North and the South. The sectional division between the areas began in colonial times, largely resulting from geographical differences. The South was ideal for growing tobacco due to the warm climate and the fertile soil. Plantations brought in black slaves from Africa to provide most of the labor required for growing the crop. In time, other plantation crops such as cotton, sugar cane, indigo, and sugar beets were to thrive in the South. "By the onset of the Civil War, 2.4 million slaves were engaged in cotton production" (Long 16). A rural way of life that supported an agrian economy based on s lave labor was quickly established in the South. The North, however, was a cooler, rockier climate that would not support the development of plantations. As a result, the North's economy came to depend more on trade and industry than on agriculture. This economy supported the growth of cities, although many lived in rural areas during the colonial period. The sectional division between North and South had widened enormously by the mid - 1800's. The United States had expanded all the way to the Pacific Ocean and was rapidly becoming a major industrial and commercial nation. However, industry and commerce were centered in the North. The Northerners welcomed modernization and the constant changes it brought to their way of life. Their ideals included hard work, education, economic independence, and the belief that the community had the right and responsibility to decide whether an action was moral or immoral. While Northerners looked forward to a different and better future, Southerner s held the present and past dear. They enjoyed a prosperous agricultural economy based on slave labor and wished to keep their old way of life. By the 1800's, northerners viewed slavery as wrong and began a movement to end it. Even though an antislavery minority existed in the South, most Southerners found slavery to be highly profitable and in time came to consider it a positive good.

The Old Man and the Sea :: Essays Papers

The Old Man and the Sea The Old Man and the Sea Hemmingway, Earnest FVL Library 138 pp. The main theme of Hemmingway's The Old Man and the Sea, is not an easy one to pick out. At first glance the book seems to simply be a story about a guy who goes out and battles with a fish. However, there has to be some underling theme. It could be the relationship between a boy and a man, and how both are treated by nature. This is illustrated by the boy's parents not allowing him to continue with the unlucky old man. It is also shown by the success the boy had and the failure the old man experienced after their parting. Still through all of this the boy remembers how well the old man treated him and does everything he can for the old man. On the whole, I liked this book. It was written in relatively easy to follow language, yet Hemmingway was still able to convey unbelievable images of picturesque settings in the reader's mind. There is also an interesting use of dialog, not only between the boy and the old man, but es pecially with the old man talking to himself. This is something I really haven't seen used that extensively. I think Hemmingway used this to fill in the parts of the story where the old man is simply at a stalemate with the fish, when he is just sitting there being pulled around the ocean. The one thing I didn't understand about this one sided conversation was the constant reference to Joe DiMaggio. I don't know if this was simply a tribute to a great ball player, or some kind of historical reference that I just didn't get. The pace and general flow of the story was good. There were a few times during the struggle where the action all but disappeared, but on the whole there was almost always something happening. The plot was also pretty simple and easy to follow. Another quality of this book which I have seen in others I have previously read was the complete lack of a male-female love subplot. As I have said before, this often times just messes things up. In this case the only love affair was between the old man and fishing. However I would not say there was love between the old man and the fish.

Ib Biology Hl2 – 6.1 (Digestion)

6. 1. 1 Explain why digestion of large food molecules is essential. There are two reasons why the digestion of large food molecules is vital. Firstly, the food we eat is made up of many compounds made by other organisms which are not all suitable for human tissues and therefore these have to be broken down and reassembled so that our bodies can use them. Secondly, the food molecules have to be small enough to be absorbed by the villi in the intestine through diffusion, facilitated diffusion or active transport and so large food molecules need to be broken down into smaller ones for absorption to occur.Summary: ? 1. Food needs to be broken down and reassembled. 2. Large food molecules need to be broken down into smaller ones. 6. 1. 2 Explain the need for enzymes in digestion. Enzymes are needed in the process of digestion as they are the biological catalysts which break down the large food molecules into smaller ones so that these can eventually be absorbed. Digestion can occur natura lly at body temperature, however this process takes a very long time as it happens at such a slow rate. For digestion to increase in these circumstances, body temperature would have to increase as well.However this is not possible as it would interfere with other body functions. This is why enzymes are vital as they speed up this process by lowering the activation energy required for the reaction to occur and they do so at body temperature. Summary: ? 3. Enzymes break down large food molecules into smaller ones. 4. Speed up the process of digestion by lowering the activation energy for the reaction. 5. Work at body temperature. 6. 1. 3 State the source, substrate, products and optimum pH conditions for one amylase, one protease and one lipase.AmylaseProteaseLipase EnzymeSalivary AmylasePepsinPancreatic Lipase SourceSalivary GlandsChief cells in stomach liningPancreas SubstrateStarchProteinsTriglycerides such as fats and oils ProductsMaltoseSmall polypeptidesFatty Acids and Glycerol Optimum pHpH 7 pH 1. 5 – 2pH 7 6. 1. 4 Draw and label a diagram of the digestive system. ?Figure 6. 1. 1 – The digestive system 6. 1. 5 Outline the functions of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine. The stomach is an important part of the digestive system.Firstly it secretes HCL which kills bacteria and other harmful organisms preventing food poisoning and it also provides the optimum conditions for the enzyme pepsin to work in (pH 1. 5 – 2). In addition, the stomach secretes pepsin which starts the digestion of proteins into polypeptides and amino acids. Theses can then be absorbed by the villi in the small intestine. The small intestine is where the final stages of digestion occur. The intestinal wall secretes enzymes and it also receives enzymes from the pancreas.However the main function of the small intestine is the absorption of the small food particles resulting from digestion. It contains many villi which increase the surface area for absorpt ion. The large intestine moves the material that has not been digested from the small intestine and absorbs water. This produces solid faeces which are then egested through the anus. Summary: Stomach: 6. Secretes HCL which kills bacteria. 7. HCL provides optimum pH for pepsin. 8. Secretes pepsin for protein digestion. Small intestine: 1. Intestinal wall secretes enzymes 2. Receives enzymes from the pancreas. . Has villi for absorption of food particles. Large intestine: 1. Moves material that has not been digested along. 2. Absorbes water. 3. Produces faeces. 6. 1. 6 Distinguish between absorption and assimilation. Absorption occurs when the food enters the body as the food molecules pass through a layer of cells and into the bodies tissues. This occurs in the small intestine which has many villi that are specialised for absorption. Assimilation occurs when the food molecules becomes part of the bodies tissue. Therefore, absorption is followed by assimilation. 6. 1. Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption and transport of the products of digestion. The structure of the villus is very specific. Firstly there is a great number of them so this increases the surface area for absorption in the small intestine. In addition the villi also have their own projections which are called microvilli. The many microvilli increase the surface area for absorption further. These microvilli have protein channels and pumps in their membranes to allow the rapid absorption of food by facilitated diffusion and active transport.Also, the villi contains an epithelial layer which is only one cell layer thick so that food can pass through easily and be absorbed quickly. The blood capillaries in the villus are very closely associated with the epithelium so that the distance for the diffusion of the food molecules is small. This thin layer of cells contains mitochondria to provide the ATP needed for the active transport of certain food molecules. Final ly, there is a lacteal branch at the centre of the villus which carries away fats after absorption. ?Figure 6. 1. – Intestinal villus? Summary:? 9. Many villi increase the surface area for absorption. 10. Epithelium is only one cell layer thick and so food is quickly absorbed. 11. Microvilli on the villi increase the surface area for absorption further. 12. Protein channels and pumps are present in the microvilli for rapid absorption. 13. The mitochondria in the epithelium provide ATP needed for active transport. 14. Blood capillaries are very close to the epithelium so diffusion distance is small. 15. The lacteal takes away fats after absorption.